Alphabet in Hollerith Code

Hollerith Code was devised by Herman Hollerith in 1888, a code for relating alphanumeric characters to holes in a punched card. The machine was developed to help process data for the 1890 U.S Census. Hollerith invented Punched card, tabulating machine and tabulator.

The punched card was developed in the late nineteenth century by Herman Hollerith. It is called a punched card because data is shown on the card by "punching" or making holes in certain places on the card. Machines for using the punched card were also developed at that time by Hollerith and James Powers, who also worked for the US Census Bureau. Although great technological advances have been made since that time, the punched card is still important in data processing because its code the Hollerith Code is the basis of all modern computer codes.

A punched card is also called a unit record because each card represents one complete unit of information. Data are shown on a punched card according to a system developed by Herman Hollerith. This system is called the Hollerith Code. The punched card is divided into 80 vertical columns, columns that go from top to bottom. For this reason, it is also referred to as an 80-column card. The numbers 1 to 80 are written at the bottom of the card to show this division. Each card can hold 80 characters (numbers, letters, or symbols) of data. There are twelve horizontal rows on the punched card which go from side to side. Rows 0 to 9 are written directly on the card. Punched card users understand that rows 11 and 12 are above row 0. Although no numbers are written there, punched holes can be made in each of the 80 columns of rows 11 and 12. The top of the card is called the 12-edge and the bottom of the card is called the 9-edge. This fact should be remembered because in some card readers the 12-edge is put in first and in other the 9-edge is inserted first.

Rows 0 to 9 on the punched card are called digit rows, and rows 0, 11, and 12 are called zone rows. Row 0, therefore, can be either a zone row or a digit row, but not both at the same time. If a digit (a single character number from 0 to 9) is needed, one rectangular punch, or hole, is made in a column. If a column has only one punch in a digit none in a zone row, we know that the data in that column is a number.

It is useful to become familiar with the Hollerith Code not only in order to be able to "read" a punched-card if necessary, but also because it provides a basis for the coding system used in digital computers. According to the Hollerith Code, an alphabetic character (a letter) is represented by two punches in one column; one punch is in a digit row (1 to 9), and one punch is in a zone row. The letter "A," for example, is represented by a punch in zone row 12 and digit row 1. The code for alphabetic characters is as follows: 

Letter	Zone-digit	to	Zone-digit
A to I	12-1	to	12-9
J to R	11-1	to	11-9
S to Z	0-2	to	0-9

Table 1: Alphabetic Character

Special symbols (S, =, %, etc.) are shown by three punches, one in a zone row and two in digit rows.

A 96-column card has also been developed and is used with certain 5 IBM systems. This card is smaller than the 80-column card and can hold more data. The code used with the 96-column card is based on the Hollerith Code and is called BCD (Binary Coded Decimal).

Correct me if I'm wrong.

Source: English for Computer Science McGraw-Hill

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<<< HISTORY OF COMPUTER >>> (click here to read)

EARLY DEVELOPMENTS
One of the first devices used by man to process data was the abacus. The abacus (the plural of which is abaci) is a device used to perform calculations by moving counters which are made of small beads or stones. These counters are moved up and down on a string or a wire. Abaci are, therefore, also referred to as counting boards. This tool, which was used in ancient times, is still used today to make arithmetical computations.

Centuries after the invention of the abacus, during the period called the Scientific Revolution, which began around 1540 and culminated in 1687, scientists invented other computational devices. The Scientific Revolution was an important period because people began to pay more attention to science in general. To begin with, in 1642, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, invented the first mechanical calculator. Then, in 1673, Gottfried von Leibnitz, a German mathematician invented another calculating machine. Pascal and Leibnitz both understood that machines could help mathematicians and businessmen save time and money. In fact, both men tried to sell their inventions to businesses. Following the development of these first, fairly simple, calculating machines, more complex devices were invented.

The Scientific Revolution prepared the way for the great technological advances of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution started in England after the end of the Scientific Revolution. It caused major societal and technological changes which spread to other countries in Europe and to the United States. Society was affected in several ways. To begin with people moved from the farms to the cities in order to get jobs. This meant that society became urban rather than rural. Furthermore, most products were made by machine instead of by hand. This mechanization of businesses meant that fewer people could make more, and sometimes better, products. Following that development, people became distrustful of machines. (Many people today feel this way about computers.) Finally, an entire new class, or group, of working people became an important part of society.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution also brought advances in technology. Several machines which later had an impact on the development of the computer were developed. First, in 1804, a Frenchman named Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a weaving loom (a machine to make cloth). This loom was "programmed" to make certain patterns, that is, pictures or designs. Jacquard accomplished this by punching holes in paper cards according to a code. This machine was the forerunner of the punched-card devices.

After that, in 1822, an Englishman named Charles Babbage made some important advances in technology. First, in 1822, Babbage built an enormous machine which he called the difference engine. This device could figure mathematical tables. Next, in 1833, he envisioned a machine which could complete programmed arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). He also imagined that the machine might be able to store, or remember, the results. He called this machine the analytical engine. Unfortunately, the technology during Babbage's lifetime was not sufficiently developed and his dream was never realized. Although Babbage's dream did not come true at that time, his ideas were eventually used in making the modern computer.

While Babbage was developing his ideas for the difference and analytical engines, his friend, Lady Ada Lovelace, daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron, was also hard at work. As a mathematician, Lady Lovelace invented an arithmetic code for Babbage's machine. This code, like modern codes used with computers, was based on a binary (having two numbers) number system. For this reason, Lady Lovelace is often called the first programmer. Furthermore, as a tribute to Lady Lovelace's role in the history of computers, the U.S. Department of Defense has named a programming language after her. It is called "Ada."

FROM THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TO THE FIRST MODERN COMPUTER
After the Industrial Revolution, most advances in the development of the computer took place in the United States. The first significant developments in the history of computers in the U.S. were made by a man named Herman Hollerith. Dr. Hollerith worked for the U.S. Bureau of the Census, the agency that keeps information on the population. Because the 1880 census count was not truly complete until 1889, it was clear that census reports could not be up-to-date. First, in the late 1880s, Dr. Hollerith developed a card that had coded data in punched holes. Then he invented machines which could read these and process them. For example, one machine sorted, or separated the cards; another machine tabulated, or counted, numbers; and still another merged, or joined, two sets of punched cards. As a result of these inventions, the 1890 census took only two and a half years to tabulate. A few years afterward, Hollerith started the Tabulating Machine Company in order to manufacture his devices. Subsequently, this company became part of the world-famous company called IBM (International Business Machines).

During the years succeeding Hollerith's inventions, both the punched card and the machines used with it were improved. The improved machines were called EAM (Electrical Accounting Machines) devices. The punched cards and the machines based on Hollerith's inventions are not used very frequently today.
Later, certain problems with the punched-card and the accounting machines developed. First, because the machines were mechanical (operating with gears and levers), their speed was limited. Second, since each machine performed a different job, extra time was needed to change the cards from one machine to another. Last, and above all, the possibility for mistakes was high because of the need to keep transferring the cards.

During the Second World War the modern age of computers began with the development of the first electronic computers. Several developments took place during this period of time which changed the history of computation.

1. 1938-1942. Professor John V. Atanasoff of Iowa State College and his assistant, Clifford Berry, designed and built the Atanasoff-Berry computer, the ABC. It was the first electronic digital computer and provided the basis for the development of the ENIAC.
2. 1939-1944. Professor Howard Aiken of Harvard University, together with some engineers from IBM, built an enormous calculating machine. This joint effort produced the MARK 1, an electro-mechanical device that was controlled by punched cards. MARK 1 was used in military ballistics (the study of the motion of bullets, missiles, bombs, etc.).
3. 1943-1946. Dr. John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, with funding from the U.S. Army, constructed the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). This was the first major electronic digital computer. The ENIAC was an enormous machine which weighed about 30 tons (1 ton = 2,000 pounds) and took up an area of 1,500 square feet. The ENIAC is particularly important in the history of computers because it provided the basis of modern computer technology.

The developments which took place during World War II led to the important advances made in the period after the war. This period can be referred to as the modern age of computers.

                                      

             Picture 1 Abacus Picture                                               2 The first mechanical calculator                

                   Picture 3 The Jacquard loom                                  Picture 4 The Jacquard loom              

                   Picture 5 The difference engine                                                Picture 6 The ENIAC

Source: English for Computer Science McGraw-Hill

<<< HISTORY OF INTERNET >>> (click here to read)

Internet wasn't internet. It was called ARPANET (The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). Long before the arrival of digital communications, the steam engine, telegraph pole and coalmine quickened the pace of the world. The industrial revolution created a world of centralization and organized hierarchy. Its defining pattern was a single, central dot to which all strands led. But the emerging digital age is different.

A great adjustment in human affairs is under way. The pattern of political, commercial and cultural life is changing. The defining pattern of the emerging digital age is the absence of the central dot. In its place a mesh of many points is evolving, each linked by webs and networks. This story is about the death of the centre and the development of commercial and political life in a networked system. It is also the story about the coming power of the networked individual as the new vital unit of effective participation and creativity.

At the centre of this change is the Internet, a technology so unusual and so profoundly unlikely to have been created that its existence would be a constant marvel were it not a fact of daily life.
The 1950s were a time of high tension. The US and Soviet Union prepared themselves for a nuclear war in which casualties would be counted not in millions but in the hundreds of millions. As the decade began President Truman’s strategic advisors recommended that the US embark on a massive rearmament to face off the Communist threat.

The story of the Internet’s first decades pivots around the difficulties of a willing government to gift a revolutionary technology to a private sector unwilling to accept it. Twenty-first-century observers would be baffled by the inability of the telecommunications giant, at&t, to grasp the potential of the Internet. at&t could have taken over control of arpanet and gained a head start in the new digital dispensation. Yet on two separate occasions it rejected the opportunity to develop the Internet: first, when rand had approached it with only a concept of how digital packet networking could work in the 1960s; and second, when arpa presented working proof of the arpanet in the mid-1970s. It would scarcely seem possible knowing what is now known about the Internet that a company could have rebuffed the opportunity to gain an early mover advantage.

Cern is the European Organization for Nuclear Research and the world’s largest particle physics laboratory. In the 1980s and early 1990s it was home to a dizzying array of incompatible computers brought by thousands of researchers travelling from different countries. It represented all the diversity of the computing world within one self-contained environment. A contractor named Tim Berners-Lee developed a piece of software called ‘Enquire’ in the 1980s to map relationships between the various people, programs and systems he encountered there. Enquire marked the first step in his invention of the World Wide Web.

SOCIAL MEDIA
Social media is a form of electronic communication, such as websites for social networking and microblogging, through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content like videos and photos.

First Social App
SixDegrees (1997), is often regarded as the first social media site. In 1991, when Tim Berners-Lee integrated hypertext software with the Internet, he created the World Wide Web, marking the beginning of the modern era of networked communication.

First Online Chat Room
It is probably Talkomatic. It was an online chat system by Doug Brown and David R. Woolley in 1973 on the PLATO system.

Social Media Now
In the early 2000s, social media platforms gained widespread popularity with the likes of Friendster and Myspace, followed by Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter (now: X), among others.

Source:
Ryan, J. (2010). A History of The Internet and The Digital Future. London: Reaktion Books Ltd.

Laksamana Cheng Ho

 

Sang Penjelajah Samudra dari Timur

Cheng Ho (atau Zheng He) adalah salah satu penjelajah paling berpengaruh dalam sejarah dunia. Lahir dengan nama Ma He di Yunnan sekitar tahun 1371, ia tumbuh menjadi seorang laksamana, diplomat, dan kasim kepercayaan Kaisar Yongle dari Dinasti Ming.

Ekspedisi Armada Harta

Antara tahun 1405 hingga 1433, Cheng Ho memimpin tujuh ekspedisi maritim raksasa yang dikenal sebagai “Pelayaran Kapal Harta”. Berbeda dengan penjelajah Barat yang sering kali bertujuan menaklukkan wilayah, misi Cheng Ho lebih difokuskan pada:

• Diplomasi: Memperkuat pengaruh politik Dinasti Ming di mata dunia.
• Perdagangan: Menukar sutra dan porselen Tiongkok dengan rempah-rempah, gading, dan hewan eksotis.
• Keamanan: Menumpas bajak laut yang mengganggu jalur perdagangan di Asia Tenggara.

Jejak di Nusantara

Bagi kita di Indonesia, Cheng Ho bukan sekadar tokoh sejarah Tiongkok. Ia memiliki ikatan emosional yang kuat dengan Nusantara. Dalam perjalanannya, ia berulang kali singgah di berbagai tempat seperti Aceh, Palembang, Cirebon, dan Semarang.

Cheng Ho dikenal sebagai sosok yang religius dan toleran. Melalui armadanya, ia turut menyebarkan pengaruh kebudayaan dan membantu dakwah Islam di tanah Jawa. Warisannya masih berdiri kokoh hingga saat ini, salah satunya melalui Klenteng Sam Poo Kong di Semarang yang dibangun untuk menghormati kehadirannya.

Akhir Hayat dan Warisan

Cheng Ho wafat sekitar tahun 1433 dalam perjalanan pulangnya dari Afrika Timur. Meskipun setelah kematiannya Dinasti Ming memilih untuk menutup diri (isolasi), nama Cheng Ho tetap abadi sebagai simbol perdamaian dan pertukaran budaya antar bangsa.

“Ia mengarungi samudra bukan untuk menjajah, melainkan untuk merajut persaudaraan di seberang lautan.”

Peran sebagai Jembatan Akulturasi

Satu hal yang unik adalah cara Cheng Ho menyebarkan pengaruhnya tanpa menghapus kearifan lokal. Ia memperkenalkan teknologi pertanian, pertukangan, dan pengobatan Tiongkok kepada penduduk lokal yang mayoritas Muslim atau baru mengenal Islam.

Proses ini menciptakan akulturasi budaya yang harmonis. Islam yang dibawa oleh armada Cheng Ho cenderung bersifat damai dan membaur dengan tradisi setempat. Hal inilah yang menyebabkan banyak masjid di pesisir Jawa memiliki arsitektur yang mirip dengan bangunan Tiongkok (seperti atap tumpang atau dominasi warna merah), yang menjadi bukti visual bahwa Islam masuk ke Nusantara melalui jalur persahabatan dan pertukaran ilmu pengetahuan, bukan penaklukan.

Sembilan Wali

 Umumnya kita mengenal Walisongo hanyalah sembilan orang yaitu: Syekh Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Sunan Ampel, Sunan Bonang, Sunan Giri, Sunan Drajad, Sunan Kalijaga, Sunan Kudus, Sunan Muria dan Sunan Gunung Jati. Sebenarnya Walisongo adalah nama suatu da’wah atau Dewan Mubaligh. Apabila salah seorang dari dewan tersebut pergi atau meninggal dunia maka akan segera diganti oleh wali lainnya.

Seperti tersebut dalam Kitab Kanzul Ulul Ibnul Bathuthah yang penulisnya dilanjutkan oleh Syekh Maulana Al Maghrobi, Walisongo melakukan sidang tiga kali yaitu:

1. Tahun 1404 M adalah sembilan wali.
2. Tahun 1436 M masuk tiga wali mengganti yang wafat. Tahun 1463 M masuk empat wali mengganti yang wafat dan pergi.
3. Menurut KH. Dachlan Abd. Qohar, pada tahun 1466 M, Walisongo sidang lagi membahas berbagai hal. Diantaranya adalah perkara Syekh Siti Jenar, meninggalnya dua orang wali yaitu Maulana Muhamad Al Maghrobi dan Maulana Ahmad Jumadil Kubro serta masuknya dua orang wali menjadi anggota Walisongo.

WALISONGO PERIODE PERTAMA
Pada waktu Sultan Muhamad 1 memerintah kerajaan Turki, beliau menanyakan perkembangan agama Islam kepada para pedagang dari Gujarat (India atau Bharat). Dari mereka Sultan mendapat kabar berita bahwa di Pulau Jawa ada dua kerajaan Hindu yaitu Majapahit dan Pajajaran. Di antara rakyatnya ada yang beragama Islam tapi hanya terbatas pada keluarga pedagang Gujarat yang kawin dengan para penduduk pribumi yaitu di kota-kota pelabuhan.

Sang Sultan kemudian mengirim surat kepada para pembesar Islam di Afrika Utara dan Timur Tengah. Isinya meminta para para ulama’ yang mempunyai karomah untuk dikirim kepulau Jawa. Maka terkumpullah sembilan ulama berilmu tinggi serta mempunyai karomah. Pada tahun 808 Hijrah atau 1404 Masehi para ulama itu berangkat ke Pulau Jawa. Mereka adalah: 

1. Maulana Malik Ibrahim, berasal dari Turki ahli mengatur negara. Berdakwah di Jawa bagian timur. Wafat di Gresik pada tahun 1419 М. Makamnya terletak satu kilo meter dari sebelah utara Pabrik Semen Gresik.
2. Maulana Ishak berasal dari Samarqand (dekat Buhara-Rusia Selatan). Beliau ahli pengobatan. Setelah tugasnya di Jawa selesai Maulana Ishak pindah ke Pasai dan wafat di sana.
3. Maulana Ahmad Jumadil Kubra, berasal dari Mesir. Beliau dakwah keliling. Makamnya di Troloyo Trowulan, Mojokerto Jawa Timur.
4. Maulana Muhammad Al Mahrobi, berasal dari Maghrib (Maroko), beliau berdakwah keliling. Wafat tahun 1465 M. Makamnya di Jatinom Klaten, Jawa Tengah.
5. Maulana Malik Isroil berasal dari Turki, ahli mengatur negara. Wafat tahun 1435 M. Makamnya di Gunung Santri.
6. Muhamad Ali Akbar, berasal dari Persia (Iran), ahli pengobatan. Wafat tahun 1435 M. Makamnya di Gunung Santri. 
7. Maulana Hasanuddin, berasal dari Palestina. berda’wah keliling. Wafat tahun 1462 M. Makamnya disamping masjid Banten Lama. 
8. Maulana Alayuddin, berasal dari Palestina, berda’wah keliling. Wafat pada tahun 1462M. Makamnya disamping masjid Banten Lama. 
9. Syekh Subakir, berasal dari Persia, ahli rukyah menumbali tanah angker yang dihuni jin-jin jahat tukang menyesatkan manusia. Dengan adanya tumbal itu jin-jin tadi akan menyingkir dan tanah yang di tumbali dijadikan Pesantren. Setelah banyak tempat yang ditumbali maka Syekh Subakir kembali ke Persia pada tahun 1462 M dan wafat disana. Salah seorang pengikut atau sahabat Syekh Subakir meninggal dunia ketika beristirahat di daerah Blitar. Hingga sekarang makam pengikut Syekh Subakir tersebut ada di sebelah Pemandian Blitar, Jawa Timur. Disana ada peninggalan Syekh Subakir berupa sajadah yang tersebut dari batu kuno.

WALISONGO PERIODE KEDUA
Pada periode kedua ini masuklah tiga orang wali menggantikan tiga wali yang wafat. Ketiganya adalah:

1. Raden Ali Rahmatullah, datang ke Jawa pada tahun 1421 menggantikan Malik Ibrahim yang wafat pada tahun 1419. Raden Rahmat berasal dari Cempa-Muangthai Selatan.
2. Sayyid Ja’far Shodiq berasal dari Palestina, datang di Jawa tahun 1436, menggantikan Malik Isro’il yang wafat pada tahun 1435M. Beliau tinggal di Kudus Sehingga dikenal dengan sebutan Sunan Kudus.
3. Syarif Hidayatullah berasal dari Palestina, datang di Jawa pada tahun 1436 M. Menggantikan Maulana Ali Akbar yang wafat pada tahun 1435. Sidang Walisongo yang kedua ini diadakan di Ampel Surabaya.

Para wali kemudian membagi tugas. Sunan Ampel, Maulana Ishaq dan Maulana Jumadil Kubro bertugas di Jawa Timur. Sunan Kudus, Syekh Subakir dan Maulana Al-Maghrobi bertugas di Jawa Tengah. Syarif Hidayatullah, Maulana Hasanuddin dan Maulana Aliyuddin di Jawa Barat, Dengan adanya pembagian tugas ini maka masing-masing wali telah mempunyai wilayah dakwah sendiri-sendiri, mereka bertugas sesuai keahlian masing-masing.

WALISONGO PERIODE KETIGA
Pada tahun 1463 M. Masuklah empat wali menjadi anggota Walisongo yaitu:

1. Raden Paku atau Syekh Maulana Ainul Yaqin kelahiran Blambangan Jawa Timur. Putra dari Syekh Maulana Ishak dengan putri Kerajaan Blambangan bernama Dewi Sekardadu atau Dewi Kasiyan. Raden Paku ini menggantikan kedudukan ayahnya yang telah pindah ke Negeri Pasai. Karena Raden Paku tinggal di Giri maka beliau lebih terkenal dengan sebutan Sunan Giri. Makamnya terletak di Gresik Jawa Timur. 
2. Raden Said, atau Sunan Kalijaga, kelahiran Tuban Jawa Timur. Beliau adalah putra Adipati Wilatikta yang berkedudukan di Tuban. Sunan Kalijaga menggantikan Syekh Subakir yang kembali ke Persia.
3. Raden Makdum Ibrahim, atau Sunan Bonang, lahir Ampel Beliau adalah putra Sunan Ampel, Sunan Bonang menggantikan kedudukan Maulana Hasanuddin yang wafat pada tahun 1462. Sidang Walisongo yang ketiga ini juga berlangsung di Ampel Surabaya.

WALISONGO PERDIODE KEEMPAT
Pada tahun 1466 diangkat dua wali menggantikan dua yang telah wafat yaitu Ahmad Jumadil Kubro dan Maulana Muhammad Maghrobi. Dua wali yang menggantikannya ialah:

1. Raden Hasan atau Raden Fattah (Raden Patah) Raden Patah adalah murid Sunan Ampel, beliau adalah putra Raja Brawijaya Majapahit. Beliau diangkat sebagai Adipati Bintoro pada tahun 1462 M. Kemudian membangun Masjid Demak pada tahun 1465 dan dinobatkan sebagai Raja atau Sultan Demak pada tahun 1468.
2. Fathullah Khan, putra Sunan Gunungjati, beliau dipilih sebagai anggota Walisongo menggantikan ayahnya yang telah berusia lanjut.

WALISONGO PERIODE KELIMA
Dapat disimpulkan bahwa dalam periode ini masuk Sunan Muria atau Raden Umar Said-putra Sunan Kalijaga menggantikan wali yang wafat.

Konon Syekh Siti Jenar atau Syekh Lemah Abang itu adalah salah seorang anggota Walisongo, namun karena Siti Jenar di kemudian hari mengajarkan ajaran yang menimbulkan keresahan umat dan mengabaikan syariat agama maka Siti Jenar dihukum mati. Selanjutnya kedudukan Siti Jenar digantikan oleh Sunan Bayat-bekas Adipati Semarang (Ki Pandanarang) yang telah bertobat dan menjadi murid Sunan Kalijaga.

Sembilan Wali yang dikenal dan dimaklumi masyarakat secara umum para wali yang dimaksud ialah:

1. Syekh Maulana Malik Ibrahim (Sunan Gresik)
2. Sunan Ampel
3. Sunan Bonang
4. Sunan Giri
5. Sunan Drajad
6. Sunan Muria
7. Sunan Kudus
8. Sunan Kalijaga
9. Sunan Gunungjati.

Sembilan Wali inilah yang secara umum diketahui masyarakat sebagai Walisongo. Para peziarah Walisongo, minimal biasanya mendatangi makam sembilan wali tersebut. Adapun jika ziarah itu ingin lebih lengkap maka pemimpin ziarah (yang mengerti sejarah Walisongo) mereka akan menziarahi pula Walisongo periode pertama hingga periode keempat, termasuk guru-guru atau orang tua dari para wali periode kelima. Misalnya, seseorang dari Surabaya yang telah berziarah ke makam Sunan Drajad, ia pasti akan menyempatkan diri berziarah ke makam Syekh Maulana Ibrahim Asmarakandi di Gesikharjo, beliau adalah Kakek Sunan Drajad dan ayah dari Raden Rahmat Sunan Ampel.

Sumber: Kisah Perjalanan Syekh Subakir Walisongo Generasi Pertama Menumbali Tanah Jawa (H.Syamsul Hadi)